Robert Cowherd

Professor

Patrick Haughey

Evangelical colonialisms are characterized by combining projects of religious conversion with the use of force to impose dominant trade relations. While religion played a more or less significant role in European moral justification for imposing control over the peoples, cultures and societies of the rest of the world, the evangelizing mission of the Catholic powers of the Iberian Peninsula, now known as Portugal and Spain, were so deeply integrated with the mechanisms of colonial power that it justifies be distinguished from other colonial systems. 

The architectural evidence of Evangelical colonialisms demonstrates the interpenetration of economic and religious imperatives in the formal spatial relationships between the architectures of colonial administration, and institutions of the church. Formal expressions found in the Portuguese and Spanish colonies demonstrate the ways that various European Baroque, Classical, or Neo-Gothic styles were deployed in the pursuit of a joint operation of conversion and control of indigenous populations. These architectures came into being as copies of European precedents taking on a hybrid expression as they bear the imprint of local, indigenous labor and materials.

Lecture 1. Handout

Lecture 1. Notes

For centuries, the Indian sub-continent proved one of the most productive regions beyond European control
1655 Malabar (India, Johan Nieuhoff PD)

Christianity’s evangelical imperative is an under-recognized driver of 15th c. expansion
c. 1450 Kerait Ruler Ong Khan depicted as Prester John (Livre des Merveilles PD)

Evangelical 
Colonialisms
1594 Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (Foundation Mario Soares
)

Why is the co-founder of the Jesuit order buried in a Baroque Church in Goa, India?
Portuguese Evangelical Colonialism from Africa to Asia
1594 Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (Foundation Mario Soares)

4. Simplified west 
narthex
 entry and 
5. east 
chancel
 choir-altar areas
1594 Plan of Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (India, Traveljit)

Inertia of “reconquest”: the Portuguese and Spanish thrust outward on a mission of God and trade 
1494 Portuguese-Spanish Treaty of Tordesillas (Humboldt.edu)

The Second Crusade’s 1147 Capture of Lisbon (Portugal) accelerated the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula
1147 "Siege of Lisbon” (Alfredo Roque Gameiro, 
Quadros da História de Portugal
 1917 PD)

Why was Portugal interested in Africa?
1400 Pre
-
c
olonial Africa: resources, kingdoms and religions

15th c. Portuguese 
Cartaz
 Monopoly Trade System was imposed via Fortified Ports like on Gorée Island
1745 Plans of Gorée Island 
(Dakar, Senegal
, J.V. Schley 
PD)

“Elmina” (the mine) was a major source of gold and later, slaves
1471 Fortress Elmina, Gold Coast 
(Ghana, 
1665 Johannes Vingboons 
PD)

1452 “Perpetual Servitude”: The Catholic Church’s Authorization of Slavery
1563 Nautical Map of Portuguese 
Trading Ports of the Mediterranean and Atlantic Coast 
(
Lázaro Luís 
PD)
“We grant you by 
...
our Apostolic Authority, full and free permission to invade, search out, capture, and subjugate the Saracens and pagans and any other unbelievers and enemies of Christ wherever they may be, as well as their kingdoms, duchies, counties, principalities, and other property …and 
to reduce their persons into perpetual servitude
.”
— Pope Nikomaus V, 1452

Northern, Middle and Southern Spice and Silk Trade Routes during 1488 and 1498 Portuguese Voyages
1488 Portuguese quest for Muslim Spice & Silk Routes (PD)

Goa was the trading capital of the Portuguese Estado de Indies stretching from Lisbon to Japan
1510 Portugal conquering Goa (India, Didot 1746 PD)

The Jesuit order was founded by former soldier Ignatius Loyola as part of Roman Counter Reformation
1491-1556 St.Ignatius Loyola as a warrior (PD)

Jesuit Mission and Cultural “Syncretism”
1541-1552 Voyages of Cofounder of the Jesuit Order St. Francis Xavier (PD)

Baroque Mannerist Basilica as Catholic Counter Reformation instrument of mass conversion in 8 ways:
1594 Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (India, P.S. Sujay CC3)

1. The name and facade inscription emphasize direct access to the divine grace of Jesus
1594 Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (India, Satyameva Jayate)

2. The aisles are legible on the facade...
1594 Bom Jesus Church, Goa (India, Nima Sareh CC2)

2....the interior is a singular unified nave space of the congregation.
1594 Nave of Basilica Bom Jesus, Goa (India, Dolly)

3. The Pulpit is placed at the mid-point of the longer nave to hold more people as a “preaching church.”
1594 Nave of Basilica Bom Jesus, Goa (India, Dolly)

6. The transept side chapels are smaller and the 
crossing
 dome is reduced to avoid separation from the altar
7. The simplified space is matched by exuberant use of gold and 
polychrome
 (multi-colored) marble
1594 Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (Radhakrishnan CC2)

8. 
Voluptuous sculptural forms and theatrical exuberance
1594 Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (Aviatorjk CC3)

Together, the unification of space and the rich material experience exemplify the Roman Counter Reformation
1594 Nave of Basilica Bom Jesus, Goa (India, Dolly)

Syncretism: Distinctly European visage of St. Francis Xavier and the Infant Jesus
1594 Altar of Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (India, salin58)

Syncretism: 
Goa Indica
 style angels combining European and Hindu aesthetic attributes
1594 Pulpit of Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (India, Satyameva Jayate)

Syncretism: The date of the Feast of Nativity is routinely shifted to also serve as the Tamil Harvest Festival
2012 Sari clad Virgin Mary as Devi Amman in St. Mary's Basilica, Bangalore (India, Ramesh HS)

 
Roman Baroque is dispersed throughout the 
Estado de Indies 
where the Jesuits have influence
1639 Nossa Senhora da Divina Providencia, Goa (Alende Devasial CC3)

Theoretical purity in Serlio’s Baroque Mannerist facade
1537 Sebastiano Serlio's Model Church Facade (PD)
The “Mother Church” of the Jesuit Order
1551 Il Gesu, Rome by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola & Giacomo della Porta (Alessio Damato CC3)

Church and palace in the Baroque Mannerist facade
1594 Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (Nima Sareh
 
CC2)
The “Mother Church” of the Jesuit Order
1551 Il Gesu, Rome by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola & Giacomo della Porta (Alessio Damato CC3)

Though departing from the Basilica church form, it retains the designation of Basilica as a Pilgrimage site
"Relics" (remains) of Saint Francis Xavier, 1594 Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (Aviatorjk CC3)

The Viceroy’s (Vice King) Palace was built to control the port of Goa
1777 Plan & Section Viceroy’s Palacio de Forteleza, Goa (Carita 1999)

The Viceroy’s “Palace of the Inquisition” and Fortified Port Palace (pink) and Churches (red) in the new grid plan
1777 Portuguese Grid Plan, Goa (Carita 1999)

Hybrid Byzantine-Islamic “Manueline” style 
1510 Tower of Belem, Lisbon Harbor (Portugal, Alvegaspar CC3)

Named the “Peppercorn Cathedral” for the Indian Ocean trade that funded its construction
1501 Interior, Monastery Jerónimos, Lisbon (Lacobrigo CC3)                               

Pepper was once a gift fit for kings; above, a French manuscript illustration from the early 15th century shows both harvesting and royal presentation.
After the devastating 1531 earthquake and tsunami, Portuguese trade funded Lisbon’s glorious reconstruction
1592 Departure of Fleet from Lisbon (Theodo
or
 de Brye PD)

Portuguese Carrack ships out of Goa became the key to trade between China and Japan
1600 Japanese 
Painting of a 
Portuguese Namban Carrack Ship (Kano Naizen Kobe City Museum PD)

1553 Portugal established a trading post in the village of Amacau (Macau China)
1639 Macao (
PD
)

The Portuguese established Dejima Island in Nagasaki Harbor, transferred to Dutch control in 1637
1824 View of Dejima (Nagasaki, Japan, PD)

Pepper was once a gift fit for kings; above, a French manuscript illustration from the early 15th century shows both harvesting and royal presentation.
By 1580 the Portuguese controlled Indian Ocean and Far East trade from its headquarters in Goa
1630 Portuguese Map of Asia (Joao Teixeira PD)

Legacies 
of Colonialism in the 
Present
: Goa
1961 India takes back Goa from Portugal (www.indianmartyr.com)]

Legacies 
of Colonialism in the 
Present
: 
Portuguese 
Angola
1641 The map of Luanda, Angola (former São Paulo) and São Tome (PD)

Legacies 
of Colonialism in the 
Present
: 
Portuguese 
Angola
Portuguese Troops heading to Angola during World War I (PD)

Legacies 
of Colonialism in the 
Present
: 
Angola
Angola Oil Production (Stratfor)

Legacies of Colonialism in the 
Present
: Angola
2012 
Cazenga musseques, Luanda (urbanafrica.net) 

Legacies of Colonialism in the 
Present
: Angola
Portugal 
and the Contemporary World (economicshelp /ECB)

Lecture 1. Portuguese Goa: Evangelical Colonialism from Africa to Asia

The site for this lecture is the Presidential Palace, in Mexico City via Cordoba and Sevilla. This lecture will focus on the system of forced displacement using religious and urban architectures built over the remains of indigenous structures. The Spanish method of conversion and occupation requires that existing sites of power, be used as the foundations for new architectures of religion and political control. The Influence of mujedar architectures in New Spain will also be important to the new architectures in Mexico. In this global framing of history, we instead use as our point of entry the establishment of religious orders and their evangelical imperative of claiming for the Catholic Church the newly discovered human souls of the Americas. In this framing, the exuberance of the Baroque treatment of church architecture operates as an instrument of spreading the faith. It operates to compete with, displace, or subsume indigenous beliefs by dramatizing the rapture of the Christian faith.

Lecture 2. Handout

Lecture 2. Notes

How did 500 invaders transform the 20-million-person Aztec Empire into Catholic New Spain?
Spanish Mexico Evangelical Colonialism and the Encomienda System
1552 Presidential Palace, 
Mexico 
City

Serial Displacements: Cathedral in a Mosque on a Church on a Roman Temple
1236 Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption, Cordoba (Spain, Quero CC2)

The minaret of the 830 Great Mosque serves as the bell tower of the Sevilla Cathedral
1410  
Cathedral with 
“
La Gri
selda” the Mosque Minaret, Sevilla (Spain, Mehling CC4)

Mudejar
 Style: Mixture of Muslim and Christian influences
Patio de las 
Doncellas
, Alcazar, 
Sevilla
 (Spain, Cat CC2)

 1521 Cortes’ conquest of Tenochtitlan  after an 80-day siege aided by epidemic and American allies
1524 Ritual Center of Tenochtitlan (Cortes Nuremberg Map PD)

1492 Ferdinand & Isabella in the Alcázar: Columbus, 
Reconquista
, Expulsion of the Jews, First Spanish Pope
1494 Christopher Columbus audience with Ferdinand and Isabella in the Alcázar, Sevilia (Spain, Leutze PD)

Columbus, the Evangelist, not the geographer
Columbus’ Perception of the World (
www.lasalle.edu
)
Weapons they have none, nor are acquainted with them. It appears to me, that the people are ingenious, and would be good servants and I am of opinion that they would very readily become Christians, as they appear to have no religion. I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and govern them as I pleased.

The Ten Books on Architecture
“So tractable, so peaceful, are these people…there is not in the world a better nation…though it is true they are naked, their manners are decorous and praiseworthy. … they can be made to work, sow, and do all that is necessary, and to adopt our ways.” 
Columbus Landing on Hispaniola (P
D)

The Pope divides the world into Spanish and Portuguese domains
1502 The Cantino Planisphere
 with 
1494 
Line
 of Tordesillas (PD)
“...in our times especially the Catholic faith and the Christian religion be exalted and be everywhere increased and spread, that the health of souls be cared for and that barbarous nations be overthrown and brought to the faith itself. ...[W]e ...assign to you and your heirs and successors, kings of Castile and Leon, ...all islands and mainlands found and to be found, discovered and to be discovered towards the west ...by drawing and establishing a line from ...the north, ...to ...the south...” 
— 
Pope Alexander VI’s 4 May 1493 Papal Bull 
Inter caetera

Explorer Vespuci’s given name “Amerigo” is rendered “America” and applied to what is now southern Brazil
1507 Cosmographia (Library of Congress) PD

Local groups allied with the Spanish against the Aztec oppression driven by the Mexica religion.
1428 Mexica Ruler Tlacaelel's Altar of Human Sacrifice Templo Mayor, Tenochtitlan (National Geographic)

Cortes’ invading army conquers indigenous groups and expands his forces en route to Tenochtitlan
1519 Route of Cortes (Yavidaxiu CC4)
 

 4. By amplifying Spanish characteristics of the capital of New Spain achieves the status of “
ciudad
”
1690 “The Very Beautiful and Loyal Mexico City “(Museo Franz Mayer)

 7 ways the National Palace operates to establish the permanent domination by the Spanish Catholic minority
2006 Independence Day Celebration, Mexico City (Forgemind ArchiMedia CC2)

 1. The stones of Aztec temples were reconfigured into Spanish churches and palaces ...
1542 Moctezuma’s “New Houses” Palace (Codex Medioza PD)

 1. (cont.) The stones of Aztec temples were reconfigured into Spanish churches and palaces
Excavations under Cathedral, Mexico City (Brumfiel
 2008
)

  2. Moctezuma’s palace is displaced even as the Viceroy’s palace retains some elements ...
1535 Cortes' Palace, Cuernavaca (Mexico City, Miki-Plebs CC3)

  2. (cont.) Moctezuma’s palace is displaced even as the Viceroy’s palace retains some elements
1692 Mexico National Palace (Delso CC3)

 3. The Aztec goddess is displaced by the Virgin de los Remedios brought from Spain to the Cathedral
1573 
Catedral Metropolitana 
de la Asunción de María 
(Brumfield, The Aztec World)

 5. The Spanish Imperial Catholic 
Plaza Mayor 
displaced the Aztec ritual center at the same location
1695 View of the Zócalo of Mexico City (Cristóbal de Villalpando PD)

6. Political and religious authority charge the space of the 
Plaza Mayor 
and extends out through the grid...
View of the Metropolitan Cathedral and the 
Plaza Mayor
 of Mexico City (National Geographic)]

6. (cont.) Political and religious authority charge the space of the 
Plaza Mayor 
and extends out through the grid
1521 Spanish Mexico City laid out over Aztec Tenochtitlan (Kubler 
1984
)

7. Centralized power of the 
Plaza Mayor
, extended with a grid and repeated through the Laws of the Indies ...
Cities influenced by the Law of the Indies (Ching)

7. (cont.) Centralized power of the 
Plaza Mayor
, extended with a grid and repeated through the Laws of the Indies
157
3
 Law of the Indies (Veregge 1993)

Encomienda
 System: feudal hierarchies of race, religion, space and power
1520 Encomienda system (Evaristo Ciganda)

Over one hundred ships left Seville for New Spain every year, merchants conducting trade on both banks
Alonso Sánchez Coello, View of Seville and its port in the 16th century (PD)

Encomienda
 System: Bartolomé de las Casas was the most outspoken opponent of forced labor
1551 Teodore de Bry's “Slaughter of Indigenes” (Bartolomé de las Casas PD)

Encomienda
 System: racial categories were carefully documented as the basis of rights
1777 "Las Castas Mexicanas" by Ignacio Maria Barreda (PD)

Encomienda
 System: Forced conversions and relocation to Hispaniola mines
1674 Missions of 
La Florida
 (De 
Vorsey
 and Cook 1992)

 Mudejar
 style: hypo-style halls emulating Iberian mosques were used for large congregations of Americans
1731 Islamic inspired Capilla Real Monastery, Cholula 
(Mexico, Alejandro Linares Garcia GFDL)

Mudejar
 style:elaborately carved ceilings are often the most striking evidence of Muslim influence
1652 Interior, Iglesia de San Fransico, Tlaxcala (Lsalgador82 CC3)

Persistent indigenous rituals were performed inside Spanish Churches built to displace them
1594 Church on the 9th c. Pyramid, Cholula (Mexico, Alejandro Linares Garcia GFDL)

 Persistent indigenous systems resuscitate from within Spanish Catholic constructs
1695 Old Basillica of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Mexico City (Snodin)
1531 imprint of Nonantzin as the Virgin of Guadalupe, Mexico City (PD)

 Epilogue: Mexico’s national Palace and 
Plaza Mayor
 as instruments of nation building
1930 History of Mexico in the National Palace, Mexico City by Diego Rivera (Katie Bordner CC2)

 Epilogue: Mexico’s National Palace and 
Plaza Mayor
 as instruments of nation building
1822  Aztec and Spanish Knights of the Mexico National Palace, Mexico City (Jerl71 Dreamstime.com)

Bell of Dolores and the Balcony from which the President gives the “Cry of Dolores” Speech
1822 Baroque gable and balcony of the Mexico National Palace, Mexico City (Eric Menjívar CC2)

The Central Balcony (under the flag), and the Plaza are the focal point of Mexico’s Independence Eve
Grito de Dolores every 15 September Independence Eve, Mexico City (Luis Antonio Orozco)

Legacies of Colonialism: The U.S. / Mexico Border
1847 John 
Dristrunell
,"
Mapa
 de los 
Estados
 
Unidos
 de 
Méjico
 
(PD)

Legacies of Colonialism: The U.S. / Mexico Border
El Paso  and Nogales in 1899 (PD)

Legacies of Colonialism: The U.S. / Mexico Border
2016 El Paso and Nogales (
uasvision.com
)

Legacies of Colonialism: State-Sponsored Violence
February 2, 2016 Activists protest violence against women in front of the Cathedral in Plaza Mayor (
ibtimes.com
)

Lecture 2. Spanish Mexico: Evangelical Colonialism and the Encomienda System

The labor system of Encomienda was extended to the Viceroyalty of Peru using the physical forms and institutions of the Spanish Catholic Church and the Laws of the Indies. Similarities with the Inca tribute labor obligations smoothed the transition to the Spanish Encomienda implemented with particular violence in the extraction of silver at the mines of Potosí (Bolivia). As elsewhere, the Encomienda was part and parcel of the Spanish rulers’ obligation to baptize, educate, and care for the souls of the new American Catholics, but it often subjected the encomendados laborers to hardship, abuse, or death. As demonstrated elsewhere the evangelical imperative to convert souls of indigenous Americans provided the underlying justification for a forced labor system of the Spanish Encomienda operating in part through the physical and institutional infrastructures established in hundreds of towns as prescribed by the Laws of the Indies. In the Viceroyalty of Peru (Peru and Bolivia), this system of wealth extraction was brought to bear on intensive mining operations for the extraction of gold and silver. As elsewhere the role of the Spanish Catholic Church is central to the larger social, political and economic system of colonial rule. The infrastructures of road networks, town form, the urban focal points of the Plaza surrounded by religious and political buildings are central to sustaining the far-flung system of colonial extraction. We find that the architectures and cultural systems of the Inca Empire are sometimes erased and sometimes redirected to become a part of the Spanish Catholic cultural system. 

Similar to the New Spain in the lands of the Mexica, The Spanish Crown granted a number of settlers, called encomenderos, with indigenous labor grants called encomiendas. These gave extensive powers to the encomenderos, and allowed them to freely demand whatever services they pleased within their assigned native districts. Through his assignment of power, the encomendero was mainly permitted to require the natives to provide him with forced labor. However, he could also mandate they pay him large amounts of money, and bring him assorted food products and manufactured goods to his house, regardless of the distance. These encomenderos, made vecinos (official citizens of the town) by royal authority, were also allowed to dominate the city council and thus be holders of political power. Throughout we find a complex interplay of erasure, displacement, and syncretic reformation in the architectures of the Spanish Andes. Solares, plots of land distributed by the Crown, were meant to establish Spanish residences and public space in the center of the new city. The colonial period thus permitted the increase of indigenous land ownership by Spanish families, to the point of the best farm land passing from Inca into Spanish hands by the time of independence.

Lecture 3. Notes

Lecture 3. Handout

Pizarro and the Spanish Conquest of the Inca
1524-1533
 Pizarro’s Route to Cusco (PD) 

How was this Spanish Church used to control the Andean people and change the global economy?
Spanish 
Peru: Evangelical Colonialism and the Extractive Economy
15
37
 
Jesuit Church and Convent of Santo Domingo, Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

The Law of the Indies is an architecture and landscape of power 
It 
1542
, they are repackaged and named the New Laws of the 
Indies
Cities 
influenced by the Law of the Indies (© Ching)

The conquerors of the Americas considered the city to be an important element in of colonization
. 
 
Cities 
influenced by the Law of the Indies (© Ching)

Pizarro 
established the port of Lima according to the Laws of Indies
1750 Map of Lima (PD)

The 7 ways the Church and Convent of Santo Domingo operated to assert power over the region:
1438 Qorikancha under the 1537 Church of Santo Domingo, Cusco (Håkan Svensson CC2.5)

1. Erase: Eliminating Inca structures prevents any new experiences of the life they supported
1438 Model of Qurikancha, Cusco (Iglesia de Santo Domingo)

 2. Displace: New construction on the most sacred sites pushes out memories of the prior order 
1537 Jesuit Church and Convent of Santo Domingo, Cusco (Puelles Escalante)

3. Cover over: The new walls and openings (left) concealed the Inca building within (right)
1438 Qurikancha and 
153
7
 
Santo Domingo Convent, Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

4. Paint over: so smooth was the stone work that sometimes it was covered only by a new coat of paint
1438 Qurikancha and 1537 Santo Domingo Convent, Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

5. Incorporate: The plan of qurikancha was incorporated into the plan of the church and convent
1438 Plan of Qurikancha with 1533-1680 Santo Domingo Church (dotted, Puelles Escalante & Cowherd CC3)

5. Incorporate: The plan of qurikancha was incorporated into the plan of the church and convent
1537 Jesuit Church and Convent (gray) with plan of Qurikancha (black, Puelles Escalante & Cowherd CC3)

6. Subsume: Build on top of traces of the Inca construction to demonstrate the supremacy of the Church
1537
 Jesuit Church and Convent of Santo Domingo,
 
Cusco (Cowherd 
CC3
)

7. Integrate: Before the 1650 earthquake, a curved wall apse was integrated with the curved wall of the temple
1537 Jesuit Church and Convent of Santo Domingo, Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

1950 earthquake again destroyed the church only partially rebuilt to juxtapose Inca and Catholic constructions
1438 Walls of Qurikancha & 1537 Church and Convent of Santo Domingo, Cusco (Efrain Padro/Alamy)

The remarkably smooth surfaces and uncannily precise joints of the most sacred Inca stonework
Interior of Qurikancha, 
Cusco (Cowher
d CC3
)

Streets of Cusco reflect the remaking of the city under Encomienda labor and the Laws of the Indies
Spanish Architecture on top of Inca Architecture and Infrastructure, Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

Inca ashlar stonework below with similar stones assembled under by Encomienda labor above
1438 Inca and 1533 Spanish construction in the street walls, Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

Parts of Cusco exhibit the remains of stonework that predate the 1438 rise of the Inca empire
Five periods of stone construction, Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

Encomienda and the Law of the Indies in the Spanish Andes
Spanish Architecture on top of Inca Architecture and Infrastructure, 
Olantaytambo
 (Cowherd)

The layering of indigenous and European influences includes visible 
Mudejar 
features of the Spanish period
Mudejar Ceiling in the Museo Inka,
 Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

Inca Aucaypata Square stone walls with Mudejar
 
elements of Spanish Plaza de Armas 
1438 Aucaypata & 
15
59
 
Plaza de Armas
, Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

Underneath the Spanish Laws of the Indies gridded city lies the gridded Inca City
Puma
 form over the Inca gridded city, Cu
s
co (Hemming 1982)

The Jesuit Church (
c
enter
), Cusco Cathedral (left), Santo Domingo Church & Convent (upper left)
1559
 Plaza de Armas,
 Cusco (Cowherd CC3)

Cusco Cathedral was built on the site of Kiswarkancha using stone taken from Sacsaywaman
 1559 Cusco Cathedral
 
(Cowherd CC3)

Despite efforts to erase, displace, cover-paint-build over, and integrate traces of the Inca, it persists 
Sacred Teqsi Wiracocha stone in Cusco Cathedral (Puelles Escalante)

Encomienda extraction: The Altar is cedar holding 1.25 kilograms of solid silver covered in gold leaf
1559
 Cusco Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin,
 Cusco (Leon Petrosyan
 CC3)

The 
Spaniards arrived in Potos
í
 in 1545, ready to exploit silver deposits at “Cerro Rico, 
1585 Silver Mine at Cerro Rico, Potosi (www.learn.columbia.edu)

Legacies of Colonialism
Indigenous 
peoples struggle to retain their land rights 
in the face of uncontrolled development

2009 Amazon Deforestation (
Guardian.co.uk
)

Legacies of Colonialism in the Present: The Depopulation of Indigenous Peoples
I
n 
Bolivia alone, over 1 million people have died 
extracting silver
 from this mine 
“Cerro Rico” Potosi, Bolivia (Center of Mineralogy and Paleontology of Belgium)

Legacies of Colonialism in the Present: The Depopulation of Indigenous Peoples
1491 
Indigenous Groups of the Americas (Jarzombek GAHTC)

Legacies of Colonialism in the Present: The Depopulation of Indigenous Peoples
The impacts of transfer between continents of food and other biological agents cannot be overstated
1492 
Columbian Exchange (Auburn High School)

Legacies of Colonialism in the Present: The Depopulation of Indigenous People
1890 Lakota after the Wounded Knee Massacre (
PD
)
“Where today are the Pequot? Where are the Naragansett, the Mohican, the Pokanot?... They have vanished before the avarice and the oppression of the White Man, as snow before a summer sun.
”
 
—Tecumseh of the Shawnee

Legacies of Colonialism in the Present: The Depopulation of Indigenous 
People
1893 Chicago
’
s World Columbian Exposition: 
Hunter
’
s Island
 
and Cabin 

Legacies of Colonialism in the Present: The Depopulation of Indigenous Peoples
Population losses of up to
 
95
%
 led to reforestation in the Americas and a “mini-ice age” around 1600
1000-2012 Temperature and the Anthropocene (Lewis and Maslin 2015)

Legacies of Colonialism in the Present: The Depopulation of Indigenous Peoples
Reservation 
Map
 (nps)

Legacies of Colonialism
Freeport-McMoRan’s Cerro Verde’s $4.6 billion expansion is scheduled for completion in the first quarter of 2016 (
Mining.com
)

Legacies of Colonialism
Indigenous 
peoples struggle to retain their land rights which are the key to maintaining cultural identities

201
4 
Protesters 
at World Meetings in 
Lima, Peru 
(
BBC.co.uk
)

Lecture 3. Spanish Peru: Evangelical Colonialism, the Laws of the Indies and the Extractive Economy

Over the course of several generations, the Spanish transformed the excellent port of Cartagena into one of the most effectively defended harbors in history. 
Through the fortifications of the port, town, fortified hill, and especially through a series of strategic choke-points between the port, inner harbor, outer harbor and the sea resulted in a deadly gauntlet of remarkable force despite the relatively small number of ships, cannon, and soldiers emplaced there. The greatest test came in 1741 with the British and American Colonial forces of some 27,000 mounted an attack sustained for almost two months only to be turned back when disease, the rainy season and the sheer tenacity of the Spanish defenses proved insurmountable. From this point, the Spanish effectively controlled the flow of gold, silver and slaves in and out of the Spanish Americas. Of particular importance was the unprecedented flow of silver from the Petosí mines of the Viceroyalty of Peru (Bolivia) through Havana (Cuba) to Seville (Spain) and later through Acapulco (Mexico) to Manila (Philippines) and Canton (China).

Lecture 4. Handout

Lecture 4. Notes

How did 6000 men hold off a two-month attack by almost 27,000 men?
Spanish 
Evangelical Colonialism in Cartagena and the Architecture of Fortification
1762 
Castillo San Felipe de Barajas, Cartagena (Mauricio Franco)

Evangelical Colonialisms
1
654 
San Pedro Claver Church, Cartagena 
(
Shankbone
 CC3 
)

Calamar Island was a fishing and trading village of the Zenu people using intensive landscape engineering 
500-1600 Zenu Canals of the San Jorge River floodplain (Sebastian Schrimpff/World Monuments Fund)

Religious and commercial interests converged to convert pagan objects into gold ingots for shipment to Europe 
1450-PreColunbian Pectoral gold alloy ornament (Walters Museum PD)

The Viceroyalty of New Spain spanned the Pacific Ocean covering Asia and North America
1795 The Viceroyalty of New Spain of the Crown of Castile 
(Spanish Asia and North America, 
Trasamundo
 GFDL)

Bogota was the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada but Cartagena was its most strategic asset
1492-1820 Castilian 
conquest of South America (
Jluisrs
 PD)

1533 Cartagena’s strategic harbor became the key to controlling the Americas’ trade in wealth and souls
1725 Nautical Chart of Cartagena (Library of Congress PD)

1544 French privateer Jean-François Roberval was the first of a series of successful raiders
1544 Plunder of 
Cartegena
 by the French (PD)

 7 ways the geometries of military defense forged Cartagena’s Fortress San Felipe, city and harbor 
landscape
Vernon's 
Battle of Cartagena de Indias (Jean de 
Beaurain
 PD)

1. Cartagena’s natural coral reef prevents direct attacks from the Caribbean Sea
1725 Nautical Chart of Cartagena (Library of Congress PD)

2. Guns in high defensive positions on the port town wall allow Spanish defenders  to fire down on dock landing
1533 Protected docks of Cartagena (
Museo
 Naval del Caribe), 1571 Plaza Real, Cartagena (Del Carmen 2010)

3. Guns in high defensive positions on San 
Lázaro
 Hill allow Spanish defenders to fire down on inner harbor 
1741 Fort San Felipe during Vernon's Battle of Cartagena de Indias (Jean de 
Beaurain
 PD)

4. In 1640 the 
Boca Grande
 Big Mouth entry to the harbor was closed in a massive earthworks project
1640 
Boca Grande 
Escolera
 earthworks, Cartagena (
Museo
 Naval de Caribe)

4. In 1640 the 
Boca Grande
 Big Mouth entry to the harbor was closed in a massive earthworks project
1640 closing of Boca Grande, Cartagena Harbor (Juan de 
Herrara
 PD)

 5. 1657 Fort San Felipe on San Lázaro Hill with 8 canon and 20 soldiers
1657 Fort San Felipe, Cartagena (Cowherd CC3), 1741 Vernon's Battle of Cartagena (Jean de Beaurain PD)

6. Fortified Harbor Chokepoint 1: Harbor Chain “F” and Fort 
Pastillillo
 “E”
1741 Vernon's Battle of Cartagena de Indias (Jean de 
Beaurain
 PD)

6. Fortified Harbor Choke-point 2: Fort Manzanilla “G” and Fort St. Croix “H”
1741 Vernon's Battle of Cartagena de Indias (Jean de 
Beaurain
 PD)

8. 1762 Fort San Felipe was reshaped reflecting the form of the inner harbor now protected by 63 cannon
1762  Lines of Fire governing the form of San Felipe Fortress, Cartagena (De Avila)

6. Fortified Harbor Choke-point 3: Fort Boca 
Chica
 “P” and Fort St. Joseph “O”
1741 Vernon's Battle of Cartagena de Indias (Jean de 
Beaurain
 PD)

6. Fortified Harbor Choke-point 3: Fort Boca 
Chica
 “U” and Fort St. Joseph “Y”
1741 Vernon's Battle of Cartagena de Indias (Jean de 
Beaurain
 PD)

6. Fortified Harbor Choke-points delayed and weakened the British enough for Fort San Felipe to hold
1741 Castillo San Felipe de Barajas and Port, Cartagena (
Museo
 Naval de Madrid)

7. 1751 Major expansion of Cartagena’s town fortifications
1751 Walls of Cartagena (Cowherd CC3 & 
Museo
 de 
Inquisicion
)

8. 1762 Fort San Felipe was reshaped reflecting the form of the inner harbor now protected by 63 cannon
1762 Expansion of Fort San Felipe, Cartagena (
Museo
 Naval de Caribe)

1654 San Pedro Claver Church, the Patron Saint of African Slaves
1654 San Pedro Claver Church, Cartagena (The Colombian Project & Museo Naval de Caribe)

The Spanish Inquisition was used to suppress “heretics” ensuring the unquestioned authority of the Church
1770 Palace of the Inquisition, Cartagena (Museo de Inquisicion & Cowherd CC3)

1754-1768 “Seven Years” War: continental scale conquest determined by architectural scale forts
 
 Great Britain, Prussia, Portugal & allies v. 
 
 France, Spain, Austria, Russia, Sweden & allies
 (
Gabagool
 CC3)
 1742-1748 War of Austrian Succession and the far-flung geography of European warfare

 
Spain conquered to the east and Portugal to the west crossing at the Spice Islands
1494-1529 Treaties of Tordesillas and Zaragoza (PD)

Silver was one of the most important good for New Spain
1596 Mining in Potosí, (
Theodoor
 de 
Bry
 in 
Historia
 
Americae
 
sive
 Novi 
Orbis
 PD)

Spain went  crossed at the Spice Islands and establish trade with China
Major Exploration/Exploitation routes for the Colonial Europeans (©
GeoNova
)

1565 Spanish Catholic Manila develops according to the Laws of the Indies in parallel with Cartagena
1851 Map of Manila
 (
texas.edu
)

The Spanish Catholic trade and evangelical project extended to Asia
1581 Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, Manila (Ricardo C. Eusebio CC3)

The colonization of Manilla is the key to the Spanish finally arriving to trade with China
Plan of Canton (PD)

Encomienda and the Law of the Indies reaches Asia
Spain as World System Connecting Europe to China through the Americas
1851 Map of Manila (Diccionario Geografico, Estadico Historico De Las Filipinas, Madrid)

Europe-Americas: Over one hundred ships left Seville for New Spain every year.
16th c. View of Seville and its port (Alonso Sánchez 
Coello
 PD)

Haiti’s successful slave revolution indirectly sparked the 
L
atin American Wars for Independence from Spain
1700 Map of Latin America transition to Independence (
Esemono
 PD)

The 18
th
 century silting in of waterways and depopulation of Cartagena preserved it for a 20
th
 century revival
2014 
Calle
 
Baloco
, Cartagena (Cowherd CC3)

The new Port of Cartagena is one of the largest in the Western Hemisphere
2015 Expansion of Cartagena Port for Post Panamax traffic (Longshore Shipping News)

The old fortified port city (right) and new container port (left) flank the Boca Grande skyline in the distance
2013 
Cartagena from La 
Popa
, Colombia (Boris G CC3)

Reports of CIA and DEA sex parties with Drug Cartel supplied prostitutes overshadowed the 2012 Summit
2012 
Summit of the 
Americas with San Pedro Claver in the distance, 
Cartagena (El 
País.com.co
)

Lecture 4. Spanish Cartagena: Evangelical Colonialism and the Architecture of Fortification

From the 15th Century through the 19th Century the naval power and ocean-going trade routes determined who is the most powerful empire in the world. By the end 17th Century, the Portuguese and the Spanish had largely been crowded out of the Indian Ocean and Asia by the Dutch and the English, both of whom were already making forays into North America as well.
In this module, we see how the representation of a country on a map of the world using a uniform color and a sharp boundary tends to often exaggerate the homogeneity of conditions within, and the sharp distinctions with the conditions beyond, its borders. Political maps devoid of geological and topographic features, in particular belie a sometimes extreme unevenness of population distribution, access, and degree of control within nation states while seeming to concentrate differences at political boundaries. Similarly, the vast seas separating the populated places of the earth as barriers. However, advancements in seafaring vessels effectively shrank the distances between sites accessible by water transforming the shape of architecture, cities, infrastructures according to the need to exchange goods, people, and ideas. The underlying conditions that must be satisfied before any exchange can take place are precise and unyielding. Maps of the 15th century explorers demonstrate the primacy of the search for natural harbors that are best suited for building defensible fortified-port-canal-factory-house towns. Against the impressions given by most maps, the primary concern of geopolitics has for most of history been less about large more or less uniformly controlled territories, and more about controlling strategic points along accessible coastlines.

The new devices for financial exchange detailed in this sequence of lectures were developed in conjunction with new architectures supporting the activities of merchants and facilitating the accountability and trust that is the basis for the operation of the paper transactions that were central to Europe’s new capacity for flinging itself out across the globe. Company colonialism is the origin of capitalism. It is a system whereby, nation-states outsource the extraction and exploitation to for-profit companies in exchange for an often-exclusive charter fee. Companies relied on a number of financial innovations. Banks and the emerging bond market allowed companies to borrow money to invest in better ships and new routes. The stock market allowed them to sell shares to other owners, both raising capital and diversifying risk. Indeed, this was the key advantage the company had over sovereign fleets. The risk of a single voyage could be pooled among many owners rather than bankrupt a family. As a stockholder, you could hold on the shares and receive the dividend paid once per year upon the conclusion of a voyage, or sell your shares to somebody else for a profit or loss. Initially these were one time deals, shares were liquidated after each voyage. The commodities themselves were worth money, not only in sale, but in what is now known as the “futures” market. You could purchase an option to buy or sell a given item at a fixed price at some date in the future. This is always risky, however, for many this enabled them to know fixed costs months in advance and was worth the risk that they may lose or make money on the deal. 

For defenders of Efficient Market Theory, this is the best thing about capital markets, they allocate capital efficiently to the best performing companies, rewarding success, and the fewer barriers the more efficiently the capital will be allocated. The enlightenment assumption behind this idea is that people never make poor decisions in their own self-interest. Yet the companies are often structured as Limited Liability Companies, meaning the majority owners and operators are shielded from the consequences of their actions by law. Indeed, most companies had a monopoly without competition from their home country. What is more their right to trade was enforced by military power, often leading to outright war. Charter companies also had the ability to negotiate trade, build, and some cases, the license to wage war. Indeed, historian Sven Beckert calls this, “war capitalism,” as capitalism cannot operate in a vacuum of frictionless exchange. It relies always at some point on violence, whether physical or implied through law. This is arguably a more accurate description, because rarely is any form of exchange for profit completed without some violence or coercion at one point in the system from production to consumption. Indeed, most of the growers, harvesters and crafts people for spice, pepper, tea, sugar, cotton or any valued commodity were slaves, chattel labor or serfs. 

We choose company colonialism for the four lectures in this module because the extraction of profits for the benefit of the few is shrouded in a new corporate construct that includes the exertion of power, territorial violence and resource extraction that is the essence of all forms of colonialism. The other aspect of the company colonial system is that the benefits are largely concentrated in particular sites due to the relatively new ability to create wealth from invested capital and compound interest alone, without a marketable skill or product. This new form of wealth is visible as architecture and vital to the emerging modern city. For the Dutch, Amsterdam profits off of the extraction centered on Batavia, two urban sites anchored by the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Both sites illustrate the expression of power and profit through their architectures. Indeed, without the VOC, Amsterdam and Holland itself would be far less wealthy and Batavia would not even exist.

Lecture 5. Handout

Lecture 5. Notes

Dutch place names foster a sense of home for officers segregated from Chinese and other residential blocks
1650 
Plan
, Batavia 
(
Surjomihardjo
)

Module: Company Colonialisms: Dutch and English Infrastructures of War, Finance and Exchange
1750-1800 British, Dutch and Spanish Trade Activity (James Cheshire/spatial.ly)

Why did the Dutch invest so much to create a little Amsterdam on the island of Java?
Dutch Extractive Empire and the Dutch East Indies “Cultivation System” 
1740 Sugar Factory at Bastion 
Diamant
, Batavia (Jakarta, Indonesia, 
Rijksmusem
 PD)

16th century Portuguese control of spice trade passing through the Strait of Malacca
1511 Portuguese fortified port-canal-factory-shophouse town Malacca (Malaka, Malaysia, 1630 PD)

M
any elements of Batavia are found in throughout the Dutch East India Company trade network
1764 Plan of Paramaribo and Fort 
Zelandia
, Suriname (J. van Schley PD)

16th century Portuguese control of spice trade through Bantam and Sunda Kalapa (Jakarta, Indonesia)
1596 Portuguese pepper trade in Bantam (Banten, Indonesia, Johann Theodore de Bry 1599 PD)

Zero Return on Investment: De Houtman’s 1595 Disastrous First Dutch Expedition to Java
1596 Dutchman Cornelis de Houtman attack on Bantam, near Jayakarta (Jakarta,Indonesia PD)

400 Percent Return on Investment: Jacob van Neck’s 1598-1600 expedition to Spice Islands (Maluku, Indonesia)
1599 Return to Amsterdam of the First Dutch Expedition to Spice Islands (Cornelis Vroom PD)

1602 Dutch East India (Joint Stock) Company attracted huge investments in infrastructure and shipbuilding
1762 East Indies Company Shipyard, Amsterdam (Joseph Mulder PD)

Dutch control of the Spice Islands: For centuries, the sole source of cloves, nutmeg and mace
1630 Forests and Forts of the Dutch-controlled Moluccas (Maluku, Indonesia, Willem Blaeu PD)

Banda Islands Massacre: The Dutch Company exercised its military authority to protect its monopoly on spices
1724 Banda Neira, Spice Islands (Maluku, Indonesia PD)

In 
1619 the Dutch East India Company burned the Muslim 
Demak
 port of 
Jayakarta
 to the ground
1619 Plan, 1667 Fortified Port Town Batavia (Jakarta, Indonesia 
Tropenmuseum
 CC3)

 
What 4 
ways 
did the fortified port town of 
Batavia facilitate 
the establishment of the Dutch trading 
empire
? 
1780
 
Batavia
 
From
 
the
 
Sea
 
(
Jan van Ryne 
TropenMuseum
 CC3
)

1. 
Dutch engineering 
methods extended earlier Portuguese walls to surround the entire town
1622 Plan, 1667 Fortified Port Town Batavia (Jakarta, Indonesia 
Tropenmuseum
 CC3)

Simon 
Stevin’s fortification technologies at Batavia Castle replacing the Portuguese Fort 
Jacatra
1746 Fort Batavia Improvements, Plan and Section (
Arsip
 Nasional Indonesia PD)

Fortifications 
were extended to the entire port town after a 1628 attack by the 
East 
Javanese 
Mataram
 Kingdom 
1632 Plan, 1667 Fortified Port Town Batavia (Jakarta, Indonesia 
Tropenmuseum
 CC3)

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Sites and Systems of Global Colonialism

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Lectures (12)

Portuguese Goa: Evangelical Colonialism from Africa to Asia

Spanish Mexico: Evangelical Colonialism and the Encomienda System

Spanish Peru: Evangelical Colonialism, the Laws of the Indies and the Extractive Economy

Spanish Cartagena: Evangelical Colonialism and the Architecture of Fortification

Dutch Batavia: Company Colonialism

Dutch Amsterdam: Company Colonialism

English Calcutta: Company Colonialism

English London: Company Colonialism

Ouro Preto and Rio De Janiero: The Triangle Trade and the Architectures of the Slave Economy

Haiti and the French Revolution: The Triangle Trade and the Architectures of the Slave Economy

Liverpool: The Triangle Trade and the Architectures of the Slave Economy

Savannah: The Triangle Trade and the Architectures of the Slave Economy

The Overview