Mark Jarzombek

Professor

In the last lecture, I introduced the idea of the “Social Package” that made us modern humans, from 150,000 or 200,000 BC through today. There is a lot more than can be said, but the lecture was intended to give the rudiments of a more elaborate discussion.

This lecture moves the clock forward to the period called the Last Ice Age (ca. 24,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE). Though the world was uniformly colder than before, it was coldest in Europe, Russia, Siberia and Canada, which were under sheets of ice. It was in this context that a remarkable transformation took place. It was initiated by a culture known as the Gravettians – cold-weather/big game hunter specialists. Their culture was perpetuated into the modern age by the Siberian cultures, the Inuits, and the Plains Indians. 

This Northern Hunting Tradition – stretching from 25,000 BCE to ca. 1900 CE – turned out to be one of the most durable and cultural formations in human history. It is marked by the development of winter clothing, requiring needlework done by women; a heightened degree of shamanism, particularly relevant in winter season; sweat lodges; and ritual and ceremonial exchanges, usually during the winter. In terms of architecture there are two basic prototypes, the pit house and the conical house. In this lecture I will look at the conical house and compare the lavvu by the Sami in Sweden with the tipi of the Plains Indians. The lavvu is obviously the older formation. The tipi, developed maybe around 1,000 BCE or so – no one knows – is infinitely more ingenious. It is clear that it was an invention of the women, who own the tipi and are responsible for its construction and maintenance.

Lecture 2. Handout

Lecture 2. Notes

Lecture 2. Quiz

ARCHITECTURE BEGINNINGS:
A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
LECTURE 2: 
THE GRAVETTIANS AND THE 
NORTHERN HUNTING TRADITION
Professor Mark 
Jarzombek

Savannah 
60,000 BCE
40,000 BCE
40,000 BCE

GRAVETTIANS (28,000 – 20,000)
COLD-WEATHER/ BIG GAME HUNTERS
Central Europe to Russia

Gravettians
ICE
TUNDRA/ PERMAFROST
Mamooth
 Range

GRAVETTIANS
COLD-WEATHER/ BIG GAME 
SPECIALIST
Organized and communal hunting 
Sewing – for clothing and footwear

Northern Hunting Cultures
Gravettians
Venus figurines
Shaman
Plains 
Indians
Sweat Lodge
Symbolic Plan
Lavvu
-/Tipi
Magdaléniens
 
Chauvet
 Cave
 

Ceremonial Shirt
Siberian woman (
Nenets
) sewing jacket

Plains Indian Ceremonial leather beaded shirt

GRAVETTIANS
COLD-WEATHER/ BIG GAME HUNTERS
Organized and communal 
hunting (men) 
Sewing – for clothing and 
footwear (woman)
Ceremonial Shirt

GRAVETTIANS
COLD-WEATHER/ BIG GAME HUNTERS
Organized and communal hunting 
Sewing – for clothing and footwear
Ceremonial Shirt
Portable devotional objects called 
“Venus Figurines”

Venus Cult
Northern Hunting Cultures
Gravettians
Venus figurines
Shaman
Plains 
Indians
Sweat Lodge
Symbolic Plan
Lavvu
-/Tipi
Magdaléniens
 
Chauvet
 Cave
 

GRAVETTIANS
COLD-WEATHER/ BIG GAME HUNTERS
Organized and communal hunting 
Sewing – for clothing and footwear
Ceremonial Shirt
Portable devotional objects called 
“Venus Figurines”
Seasonal winter camps and mobile camps

Northern Hunting Tradition
Transportable 
elements
Permanent elements
Sturdy and weatherproof
Internal 
hearth =
Symbolic meaning
Clothing
Arid and Savannah Traditions
Easily 
assembly
Planned obsolescence
Not transportable
Local Materials
External 
hearth =
Symbolic meaning
Limited Clothing

Northern Hunting Tradition
Transportable 
elements
Permanent elements
Sturdy and weatherproof
Internal 
hearth =
Symbolic meaning
Clothing
Ancestor Cult
Special relationship to animals
Animals = Ancestors

!Kung and Australian Peoples are the main descendent today 
First Societies 50,000 BP – Arid and Savannah Peoples
!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Utes
60,000 BCE
40,000 BCE
5
,000 BCE 
(or earlier)
Sami
Nenets
Plains
Indians
 
26,000-15,000
Gravettian

!Kung and Australian Peoples are the main descendent today 
First Societies 50,000 BP – Arid and Savannah Peoples
!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Utes
60,000 BCE
40,000 BCE
5
,000 BCE 
(or earlier)
Sami
Nenets
Plains
Indians
 
26,000-15,000
Gravettian
The Great Hunting Tradition
15,000 BCE – ca. 1900 CE
Sami
Nenets
Plains
Indians

Reindeer
Lions/Bears
Caribou
Musk Ox
Bison
Seals
After the extinction of the Mammoth in 10,000 BP
BIG GAME HUNTING TRADITION

Compression ring for stability
Lavvu
: Sami Finland      

Lavvu
 as built built the 
Saami
 in Finland
Compression ring

Head Smashed In. Canada
HEAD SMASHED IN, Canada

cooking
visitors
wife
husband
Holy 
place
Lapp 
lavvu
 (Finland) 
PLAN AS SYMBOLIC
Woman       Man
visitors

Siberian Tradition
Apex and smoke hole
Sacred Space/ Fire/ Entrance
Lavvu
 
versu
s
 Tipi

Siberian Tradition
Plains Indians
Apex and smoke hole
Apex                        smoke hole
Sacred Space/ Fire/ Entrance
Sacred Space/ Fire/ Entrance
Lavvu
 
versu
s
 Tipi

To the rear of the fire a small piece of ground is dedicated as the altar, or sacred spot. This space can just be a little patch of bare earth, or it can be a special stone or a block of sod. It represents Mother Earth, and on it incense such as 
sweetgrass
, sweet cedar, or sage is burnt. It is always respected, and is the place where the Pipe is set to rest during ceremony, or other offerings are placed. Any sacred objects can be positioned 
there
.

Compression rings for stability
             
Lavvu
 versu
s
 Tipi
Sami Finland       Plains Indians

Compression ring for stability
             
Lavvu
 versu
s
 Tipi
Sami Finland       Plains Indians

Bark covering
External poles to keep bark from lifting during wind
             
Lavvu
 versu
s
 Tipi
Sami Finland       Plains Indians

Fire
wood
Altar
Tripod pole
Lifting pole
Tripod pole
Tripod pole
The Tipi

So the answer as to how this holds up. It is the jacket that places the poles in compression! Each  tepee is uniquely fitted with its own jacket. The jacket 
MUST fit tight, 
meaning that the placement of the piles cannot be arbitrary, but known and remembered.
Constructing a tipi

Bark covering
External poles to keep bark from lifting during wind
Quasi-structural “jacket”
Smoke flap
             
Lavvu
 versu
s
 Tipi
Sami Finland                         Plains Indians

Watercolor 
by 
Karl 
Bodmer
 from his 
travels through 
the U.S. 1832-1834.

Tipi Innovations in comparison to Finnish 
Lavvu
Tilting of structure allowing better temperature control.
No horizontal banding but skin surface acting as “jacket.”
Binding of poles at the apex to close off the top from rain
Surface of tipi as a type of storyboard showing history and events
Internal perimeter leather hanging allowing for better heat retention in winter
Easy to erect and disassemble (for those who know how to do it)
Reusable elements
Dragged by the dogs

Constructing a tipi
Women build and ‘own’ the tipi

Lecture 2. The Gravettians and the Northern Hunting Tradition

Shamanism is a generic term that describes a broad set of ritual beliefs about the human relationship to other humans and nature. It is linked also to
Animism. This lecture introduces the broad parameters of shamanism while also trying to get students to realize that shamanism is not a ‘dead religion.’ In the last few decades, it has even been revived – just think of the so-called neo-pagans who flock to Stonehenge! So what we see today in some parts of the world is a mixture of survival and revival.  

The lecture is structured as a general discussion of shamanism. I introduce Sweat Lodges since they played an important role in the ceremonial world of the First Societies, although in some cases everyone – not just shamans – used them. Particularly important are long winter ceremonies. I was in Cusco in June 2015 and included videos from that visit to demonstrate the survival/revival of winter ceremonial culture in the Peruvian highland region. I also discuss the enigmatic Medicine Wheels of North America. The last section is more theoretical in tone and tries to get students to see the difficulty of discussing this topic given our modern worldview.

Lecture 3. Handout

Lecture 3. Notes

Lecture 3. Quiz

ARCHITECTURE BEGINNINGS: 
A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
LECTURE 
3
: 
THE SHAMANISTIC TRADITIONS: 
PAST AND PRESENT
Professor Mark 
Jarzombek

Shaman
Locate animals on the steppe
Communicate 
with ancestors
Communicate with animal spirits
Appease the spirits of the dead
Healing by 
using plant medicines
Interpret 
dreams
paraphernalia:
Special shirts of garments
Drums and rattles
Associated with:
Trances
Dances
Special songs

Village shaman ceremony
Sikkim 
- Das 
alte
 
Wissen
 der 
Schamanen

The 
shaman 
received 
dreams and visions, giving him power to heal the sick or drive out evil spirits. 
He 
chants as he mixes various ingredients together, while shaking a calumet (rattle
).

Cheyenne sweat lodge frame photographed ca. 1910, Dakotas 

Cheyenne sweat lodge frame photographed ca. 1910, Dakotas 
east
Lodge with stones
Buffalo skull
Fire pit

Between 
the entrance to the lodge and the sacred fire pit, where the stones are heated, is an altar barrier, beyond which none may pass except the lodge or fire 
keepers. This 
barrier altar is a buffalo or other skull atop a post, placed about 3 paces from the entrance and 3 paces from the 
fire. 
At the base of the post is a small raised earthen altar upon which are placed items sacred to the group or clan, sage, 
sweetgrass
, feathers, etc., bordered with the four 
colors, and a pipe rack for tobacco ceremony.
Many 
sweats start with the participants fasting for an entire day of 
contemplation. 
Prior to entering the sweat the participants usually smudge with sage, 
sweetgrass
 or cedar 
 ash as 
a means toward ritual cleanliness
.
 The Stone People spirits are awakened in the stones by heating them in the sacred fire until red-hot. One at a time they are placed in the shallow pit inside the sweat lodge, placing first the stone on the west, then north, east, south, and in the center to Grandfather. Additional stones are then placed to Grandmother and The People
.
 The sweat leader then dips water and pours it onto the hot stones in the pit, producing large amounts of steam, usually one dipper for each of the four directions, or until he is told by the spirits to 
stop. The hissing is thought to be the voices of the ancestors. 
Then he begins his prayers, songs and chants

Northern Hunting Tradition
Transportable 
elements
Permanent elements
Sturdy and weatherproof
Internal 
hearth =
Symbolic meaning
Clothing
Arid and Savannah Traditions
Easily 
assembly
Planned obsolescence
Not transportable
Local Materials
External 
hearth =
Symbolic meaning
Limited Clothing
Sweat Lodge?

Bison Migration
Mezherlih
 mammoth-bone house facing the valley
It was probably not a ‘house’ but a ritual sweat lodge

Yup'ik
 (plural 
Yupiit
) comes from the 
Yup'ik
 word yuk meaning "person" plus the post-base -
pik
 meaning "real" or "genuine." Thus, it means literally "real people."
A 
qasgiq
 or community house, used mainly in minter 

Bison Migration
Men drum and women dance using dance fans in a 
qasgiq
 
(men’s community house) in the 1930s.

Bison Migration
Drummers
, dancers, and singers during a winter ceremony in the men’s community house, or 
qasgiq
. All communities had at least one 
qasgiq
 where men engaged in athletic contests and dances, storytelling, fire-baths (saunas), and crafts. Women came to this space to bring men food and to participate in festivals. The 
qasgiq
 was metaphorically related to the universe, with its central skylight open to the upper world of spirits
.

Bison Migration
When 
boys were old enough to leave their mothers and begin hunting, they moved into the 
qasgiq
 with the men and elders of the tribe to learn hunting and survival skills and other traditions of the 
Yup'ik
/
Cup'ik
 people. A 
qasgiq
 was the male-bonding command center for the tribe, where the men worked, ate, trained, bathed and slept. Also serving as a community center, the women and girls joined the men and boys in the evening and during winter festivals for singing, dancing and celebration
.

Published on May 12, 2013
Dancers and musicians from nine 
Yup'ik
 Eskimo villages gather in St. Mary's for the first major regional dance festival in more than 50 years, film documents three days of dancing, gift giving and contests, 1983

The Winter Gathering:
Most northern hunting cultures have a period in winter for large gatherings. There is little to do, except mend clothing and equipment. The gatherings are important social events with gift giving and above all the telling and retelling of stories mostly through song and dance. In Cusco Peru, the entire winter month of June is filled with dancing by schools and communities who come from all over the country. (Filmed by Mark Jarzombek, June 2015)

The Winter Gathering:
Most northern hunting cultures have a period in winter for large gatherings. There is little to do, except mend clothing and equipment. The gatherings are important social events with gift giving and above all the telling and retelling of stories mostly through song and dance. In Cusco Peru, the entire winter month of June is filled with dancing by schools and communities who come from all over the country. (
Filmed by Mark Jarzombek, June 2015)

SACRED LANDSCAPE
We today differentiate between sacred and secular
But in First Society situations, there is only ‘sacred’ where, however, there are
d
egrees of  sacredness.
The landscape, trees, rocks, mountains, etc. all possess spirits or are the location
o
f spirits or ancestors.
These can be accessed through names, dreams, dance and story telling.
Many sacred landscapes are associated with bends in a river or with canyons 
and caves 
Shamans have the power to intensify the landscape and to turn its various elements
Into portals or transmitters between the world of the living and the world of
t
he ancestors.
The residue of Sacred Landscapes are found in most modern religions, even
though most modern religions have suppressed First Society sensibilities.

Big Horn Medicine Wheel, Wyoming, USA
General Location of Most Medicine Wheels

Big Horn Medicine Wheel, Wyoming, USA
Winter solstice sunrise

One can safely assume that of the numerous sacred landscapes that 
o
nce 
d
otted the planet, only a tiny handful still survive. Modern religions,
‘civilizational’ expansion, cultural transformations, and the end of 
o
ral traditions all played a role.
The place where such traditions still survive to some degree is in Japan.
The belief structure is called Shintoism, but this is a 19
th
-
century
w
ord to describe a host of pre-Buddhist religions.
Unlike modern, monotheistic religious practices, Shintoism does not require those respecting its premises to be believers or practitioners. There are no sacred writings, 
nor 
is there an “organized” theory of death. 
The 
spirits of the dead go to the mountains, above the sky, below the earth, or beyond the horizon. Living beings from this world may visit those from the other worlds in border areas such as cliffs, caves, and coastlines. 
 

Shirakami-
Sanchi
: Sacred Forest, Japan
At the center of the devotion were the 
kami
, which can be defined as "spirits," "essences" or "deities.” They were associated with mountains, rivers, lightning, wind, waves, trees, and even 
rocks. 
Their presence can be indicated a 
honden
 which can be nothing more than a 
rope, 
but often is a small box-like structure with a roof made of stone or wood 
Kami and humans exist in a shared continuum
; they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexities. Nonetheless, the kami, as innate supernatural forces residing in all things, are above the actions of man. 
Shirakami
-
Sanchi
 
Mountains
 Aomori Prefecture.

Sacred Rock, Japan   Shinto Animism
Kami shrine
A "
shimenawa
” (literally “enclosing rope”) 
around an "
iwakura
" (sacred rock
)
at 
Meigetsuin
, Buddhist temple in Kamakura, 
Japan.
Iwakura
 means something like “rock warehouse” or ‘rock that contains’

Sacred Rock, Japan   Shinto Animism
Kami shrine

Sacred Grove, Okinawa, 
Sefa-utaki
,
Once only the high priestess could have access. Now open to the public

Sacred Grove, Okinawa, 
Sefa-utaki
,
Once only the high priestess could have access. Now open to the public
Entrance to path
forest
forest

Sacred Grove, Okinawa, 
Sefa-utaki
,
Once only the high priestess could have access. Now open to the public
Among the open-air shrines, there is
A gap between two huge rocks that
Must have served as a ritual portal

	
Formerly known 
as:
	Savages (19
th
 century]	
	Primitives (early 20
th
 century)
	Hunter-gatherers and Foragers (late 20
th
 century)
FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts

INDIANS
A word based on the mistaken belief by the Spanish that they had discovered “India.”(not to be used in scholarly contexts – though often used in some cases by Indian populations themselves)
PRE-COLUMBIANS
An art history category akin to the category pre-history that is used in the West. (A difficult concept to use since it means that one narrates history through the lens of ‘pre-. ‘Pre-history’ is also bad)
NATIVE AMERICANS
A more accepted category, but not without problems given the ambiguity of the word Native.
AMERICANS
Sometimes used to designate all people in the Americas, but the word is often used – mistakenly - by U.S. citizens to designate the U.S.
ABORIGINALS
A term first used in Australia, now more widespread. Though an accepted word in Australia it is problematic.
WHAT IS IN A NAME?

The word 
civilization
 is often used to indicate agricultural societies that have abandoned shamanistic practices. The rise of agriculture is itself often seen as a developmental stage of improvement.
This is a pro-civilizational myth often enhanced by modern religious perspectives.
Shamanistic practices continue in many places in the world in the context of village world or folk practices. (survival versus revival)
FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts

8
000 BCE
8
000 BCE
5
000 BCE
7
000 BCE
FIRST PHASE OF THE AGRO-PASTORAL EMERGENCE 10,000 BCE  - 5,000 BCE
8000 BCE
First Society People
First Society 
 
People
10,000 BCE
Unique overlap
Grains, cattle, sheep
8
,000 BCE
Unique overlap
Grains, pigs, sheep
8
,000 BCE
Unique overlap
Grains
 
and cattle
First Society 
People
Grassland
(pre-5,000 BCE)
Desert/Mountains
(Largely uninhabited)
Steppe
pastoral 
purists
First Society People
F.S.P.
F.S.P.

All first societies are animistic and/or shamanistic to varying degrees
Shamanism ranges from 
societies composed as small network groups (!Kung) 
[no organized agriculture]
o
rganized spiritual practices (Siberian cultures)
[no organized agriculture]
Societies with powerful elites who control agricultural management (Maya and Inca)
(residual ancestral and animistic practices of chiefdom societies in Africa, Asia, Polynesia
FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts

THE BI-CAMERAL THESIS
Principle mode of transmission is oral.
Humans are only one type of speaking entity. Others include rocks, trees, birds, plants, mountains, ancestors, dream, etc.
The bi-cameral mind ‘hears’ these voices and engages in a conversation with these speakers.
In various cultures these voices can be interpreted  through oracles, sages, and shamans
In various cultures one can get better access to these voices through dreams, hallucinogens, and ritual.
FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts

THE BI-CAMERAL THESIS
The Modern World: Principle mode of transmission is textual.
The text unifies and in a sense and empowers and industrializes knowledge. 
The text privileges itself as 
“The 
Known” 
All people read from learn the same text like the Bible, sutras, encyclopedia. Texts have singular authors who are given particular privileges of recognition.  ‘Voices’ are presumed to be irrational
FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts

THE BI-CAMERAL THESIS
The term was coined by Julian Jaynes, who presented the idea in his 1976 book 
The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind
, wherein he made the case that a bicameral mentality 
was 
the normal and ubiquitous state of the human mind until as recently as 3000 years ago – or with the emergence of an agricultural mentality that required a strong sense of individuality, ownership and 
textuality
.
His thesis applies mainly to the Asian-European context, but can be extended to all First Society worlds including that of the Americas.
FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts

The term First Societies is used here to insist that
T
emporal primacy is more important than locational primacy. Locational primacy is inevitably colonial in perspective.
P
eople have been organized into societies from the beginning. They are not ‘primitives’ and not ‘hunter-gatherers’. 
They have a way of understanding themselves and the world in which they live that is different to varying degrees dependent on where we live and the nature of our upbringing from modern perspectives. First Society perspectives are, however, not extinct. They survived in Greece and Rome and in China, SE. Asia and parts of the Americas.
 
FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts

SURVIVAL – REVIVAL
The mission of all civilizations is to repress or exploit First Society people. This was true for the Europeans as for the Chinese. The Inca looked with disdain at the forest people in the Amazon rain forest.
Only in the late 20
th
 century as the history of this encounter been re-evaluated. We see today many revivalist communities, in Japan, Siberia, England (the Druids) and in South America.
FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts

SURVIVAL – REVIVAL
In Peru there is a movement called 
Incanismo
.
Revitalize the history and the Inca 
Revitalize 
Pachamama
 (Mother God religion). The region’s many sacred stones are the center of this religion
A cultural resistance to the Catholic Church
FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts

FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts
2015/07/
05
At 
a "Witches Market" in the Bolivian city of El Alto, dried llama fetuses said to bring good fortune hang outside tin shack stalls while healers read the future in coca leaves and call on ancient spirits to cure 
ills. When 
Pope Francis visits Bolivia next week, he will discover a nation that cherishes animal sacrifices and pagan worship and where relations between indigenous communities and the Roman Catholic Church have been strained. The country's first indigenous president, 
Evo
 Morales, has frequently clashed with the church.
"I hope he comes with good intentions and not with the same thinking as in times past," said Luisa 
Quispe
, 60, a self-described witch in El Alto, a satellite city perched above the capital La Paz.
"We want respect for our culture."
Francis sets out on Sunday for Ecuador, Bolivia and Paraguay, three of South America's smallest and most impoverished nations, taking with him a message of solidarity for the downtrodden.
Church leaders in Bolivia are calling the visit "Reconciliation and Renewal". The Argentina-born pontiff, the first Latin American pope, will seek to heal rifts between the country's indigenous people and the descendants of its Spanish colonial conquerors, who brought the Catholic faith to Bolivia. Three in every four people in the country of 10.6 million are Catholic.

FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts
The pope reaching out to 
Pachamama
!

FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts
Cusco Peru: 
June is winter holiday. In classic First Society manner with its winter gatherings for socialization and dance rituals, the residents near Cusco today use the entire month for daily celebrations and competitions of groups to sing 
songs. They do this in the plaza in front of the church, spelling out in clear spatial terms the overlap
a
nd ambiguity between the two cultural formations.
Pachamama
 Celebrations

Cusco Peru: 
June is winter holiday. In classic First Society manner with its winter gatherings for socialization and dance rituals, the residents near Cusco today use the entire month for daily celebrations and competitions of groups to sing 
songs. They do this in the plaza in front of the church, spelling out in clear spatial terms the overlap and ambiguity between the two cultural formations.
Pachamama
 Celebrations

FIRST SOCIETIES, general thoughts
The question of First Societies is not a remote one or restricted to how we treat Forest People. First Society world views have survived into modern times.
We have to ask ourselves – especially those with few links to First Society mores – what the future of this ‘shared’ world will be?  What are the obligations on all sides to the past and to the future?

Lecture 3. The Shamanistic Traditions: Past and Present

Rock Art accompanied all First Society cultures the world over. Its meaning and purpose can only be known through conjecture. This lecture introduces some examples and introduces the idea of Sacred Landscape.

The lecture moves to what are certainly the most spectacular examples – the caves in southern France and northern Spain, made by the Magdalenian Culture. The history of these caves is not known definitively, but they were probably begun by the Gravettians. As the climate warmed, and they became more accessible, the number of sacred caves multiplied. People were no longer big game hunters, but lived in a world that had a more diverse fauna. The new people – known as the Magdalenians, and named after an archaeological site – used the caves as ritual centers. Large numbers of people gathered for ceremonial activities – not inside the cave, but in their vicinity. The caves were painted by people with extraordinary skills. How were these skills developed? What happened in these caves? Why did this culture die out? How early are these caves? No one knows, but it is likely that they were first put to use by the Gravettians and expanded dramatically during the Magdalenian Period.

Lecture 4. Handout

Lecture 4. Notes

Lecture 4. Quiz

ARCHITECTURE BEGINNINGS:
A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
LECTURE 4: 
THE MAGDALENIAN 
CULTURE 
AND 
THE CAVE ART TRADITION 
Professor Mark 
Jarzombek

!Kung and Australian Peoples are the main descendent today 
First Societies 50,000 BP – Arid and Savannah Peoples
!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
60,000 BCE
40,000 BCE
Sami
Nenets
Plains
Indians
 
26,000-15,000
Gravettian
The Great Hunting Tradition
15,000 BCE – ca. 1900 CE
Sami
Nenets
Plains
Indians

Rock Art
Dates to 40,000 BCE for sure and most probably much earlier.
Most likely was part of the cultural package that left Africa 60,000 BCE
Rock Art exists by the millions on all continents (except Antarctica)
Though we focus on the art, we should remember most importantly that
Rock art was part of  
Sacred Landscapes.
They reinforced the magic associated with these places
Purpose of Rock art is unknown. It is suggested that it was used
As portals into the world of the spirits
For rituals
For communication with ancestors
For healing rituals

‪Excerpt from: 
Panther 
Cave at Seminole Canyon State 
Park
https://
www.youtube.com
/
watch?v
=Ml5iyH8gKMY‬	

Rock Art
Dates to 40,000 BCE for sure and most probably much earlier.
Most likely was part of the cultural package that left Africa 60,000 BCE
Rock Art locations in Africa
 

This petroglyph of an ancient horseman pursuing mountain sheep was carved two and a half millennia 
ago
 
on an outcrop considered sacred  in the 
Ukok
 Plateau of Altai, Russia

Making an offering, Maria dips a wooden spoon into a small pot before sprinkling tiny pearls of milk over the fire. Puffs of pearly steam mix with the trails of pale smoke drifting from the smoldering sticks toward the infinite Altai sky. Photo © 
Gleb
 
Raygorodetsky
.

At the sacred 
Dzhumalinskyi
 springs, two custodians of sacred sites from Kyrgyzstan, 
Samankul
 
Azyrankulov
 (standing) and 
Kadyrbek
 
Dzhakypov
 (laying), make offerings to reconnect with the sacred landscape that nourished their ancestors, including 
Manas
 — the hero of the longest Kyrgyz epic poem who was born in the Altai over a thousand years 
ago. 
Photo © 
Gleb
 
Raygorodetsky
.

!Kung and Australian Peoples are the main descendent today 
First Societies 50,000 BP – Arid and Savannah Peoples
!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Utes
60,000 BCE
40,000 BCE
5
,000 BCE 
(or earlier)
Sami
Nenets
Plains
Indians
 
26,000-
18,000
Gravettian
The Great Hunting Tradition
15,000 BCE – ca. 1900 CE
Sami
Nenets
Plains
Indians

!Kung and Australian Peoples are the main descendent today 
First Societies 50,000 BP – Arid and Savannah Peoples
!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Utes
60,000 BCE
40,000 BCE
5
,000 BCE 
(or earlier)
Sami
Nenets
Plains
Indians
 
26,000-
18,000
Gravettian
The Great Hunting Tradition
15,000 BCE – ca. 1900 CE
Sami
Nenets
Plains
Indians
18,000 -8,000
Magdalenian 

Ice Age
 
Magdalénien
 Culture (16,000–8,000 BCE). 

 
Magdalénien
 Culture (16,000–8,000 BCE). 
ICE
ICE
ICE
EMERGING FOREST
STEPPE

 
Magdalénien
 Culture (16,000–8,000 BCE). 
 
Magdalénien
 Culture (16,000–8,000 BCE). 

 
Magdalénien
 Culture (16,000–8,000 BCE). 

 
Magdalénien
 Culture (16,000–8,000 BCE). 
ICE
ICE
ICE
EMERGING FOREST
STEPPE
Chauvet
 cave

Chauvet
 
Cave Entrance to the right past the arch 
The Pont 
d'Arc

Chauvet
 
Cave Entrance to the right past the arch 
The Pont 
d'Arc
(today)

Chauvet
 
Cave Entrance to the right past the arch 
The Pont 
d'Arc
15,000 BCE

Chauvet
 
Cave Entrance to the right past the arch 
The Pont 
d'Arc
15,000 years ago the hole would have been smaller and more dramatic

Chauvet
 
Cave (ca. 20,000  BCE) 
Ancient  entrance 

How early are these caves? No one knows, but it is likely that they were first put to use by the 
Gravettians
 and expanded dramatically during the 
Magdalenien
 Period. 
Chauvet
 
Cave (ca. 20,000  BCE) 

Chauvet
 
Cave (30,000  BCE) 
Bear Skull Chamber

Ainu
: Japan
Arikara
 - The Bear Ceremony

Ainu
: Japan
The original film shot in 1931 of this ceremony among the Ainu people of Japan. In the bear ceremony, now no longer performed, a specially reared bear was reverently killed and its flesh and blood eaten by the participants. The film shows a series of ritual acts with some commentary on their meaning
.
https://
www.youtube.com
/
watch?v
=EelCX5zjTKU

Ainu
: Japan
A sample of Ainu song
https
://
www.youtube.com
/
watch?v
=
DuVSbEItqHQ

Camp, south Africa, ca. 90,000 BP
Lascaux 
Cave 
cup

Camp, south Africa, ca. 90,000 BP
juniper

Camp, south Africa, ca. 90,000 BP
It's 
been a long time, but I think it's more like poppers or 
arecoline
 or like hyperventilating, maybe like a real tiny bit of nitrous, or like some feeling from 
entheogens
, that whizzing/whirring/rotating disk familiar feeling of some 
tryptamines
, and also somewhat like a 
disassociative
 (sic) as well, actually, yeah, from memory, more like a 
disassociative
 (sic) with mild psychedelic activity, and would assume some major visionary effects at high enough doses for complete disassociation, i.e. throwing a few 
ozs
 on some hot embers and breathing the fumes in an enclosed area.
Felt somewhat enjoyable and back then that was probably the best that existed in the ways of well known smoking herbs, although I was the only person that had ever actually SMOKED the stuff to my knowledge, that was another reason why I only did it a few times
.”
http://
www.entheogen-network.com
/forums/
viewtopic.php?f
=10&t=18111

A Sacred Juniper  Tree in  Kashmir gets an offering

Smoke is sacred. 
It was seen as a way to communicate with the elders. Think of the Native Americans and tobacco.
Look 
at the way smoke 
curls 
through the air, fluid, like water or fire, 
shapeshifting
 and changing and bringing that scent with 
it.

As they prepare to travel to the sacred 
Ukok
 Plateau, Maria (wearing a headscarf) guides her guests — clockwise: Liz 
Hosken
, director of the UK-based Gaia Foundation; Niall Campbell, a traditional healer from Botswana ; and 
Chagat
 
Almashev
, Director of the Foundation for Sustainable Development of Altai — through a purification ceremony over wafts of smoke from a sacred juniper fire.
 
Photo © 
Gleb
 
Raygorodetsky
.

Camp, south Africa, ca. 90,000 BP
Lascaux cave cup
Egyptian king applying incense in front of deity.

Catholic bishops use
Incense in preparation for 
r
itual events.

Ritual landscape
Clan communities
Clan communities
Clan communities
Temporary villages
 during ritual/
cereonial
events
Sacred Cave
tumulus
river

CAVE ART
THE REALISTIC  IMAGES INDICATE AN  EXTENSIVE 
CULTURE OF REPRESENTATION. BUT WERE THE PAINTERS 
SHAMAN’S OR OTHERWISE SPECIAL?
PURPOSE OF  CAVES IS NOT CLEAR BUT SOME CONJECTURES ARE
1. CAVES 
WERE OF LIMITED ACCESS TO RITUAL SPECIALISTS AND
INITIANTS 
(hallucinations and dreams)
2. CAVES 
WERE SITES OF RITUAL 
GATHERINGS: CLAN 
GROUPS 
GATHERED 
NEARBY IN THE VALLEYS TO PARTICIPATE
OR WITNESS EVENTS
.
3
. CAVES SITES MIGHT HAVE ‘COMPETED’ WITH ANOTHER IN REGARD
TO THE MAGIC/MEDICINE THAT THEY PRODUCED.
4
. 
CEREMONIES WERE HELD POSSIBLY TO:
COMMUNICATE WITH ANCESTORS
SUMMON THE ANIMALS FOR A HUNT
PREPARE  MEN AND THEIR EQUIPEMENT FOR THE HUNT
PROMOTE FERTILITY

SAMPLE FROM 
Cave 
Of Forgotten 
Dreams, 2010
https://
www.youtube.com
/
watch?v
=4Y0guHHDN5Q

Lecture 4. The Magdalenian Culture and the Cave Art Tradition

This lecture introduces the Holocene (around 10,000 BCE) and its consequences for the development of social forms. 

It is often argued that the Holocene set the stage for agriculture. This lecture starts from this premise, and demonstrates that the Holocene also set the stage for an expansion of First Society cultures. By 3,000 BCE, around the time we see the first cities in Mesopotamia, we see extensive First Society cultures developing in areas of particularly rich and diverse flora and fauna. 

The most notable of these was the emergence of fish-based and ocean-shore societies that spread rapidly by 3,000 BCE especially in the Alaskan-Canadian Pacific Region. That culture has its origins with the Jomon in Japan. The first part of the lecture, therefore, covers the civilizational arc around the northern Pacific from Japan to the Haida. The common threads are salmon fishing and the pit house. The pit house tradition was one of the most extensive and long-lasting architectural traditions in all of history. I discuss the Haida to emphasize the affluence of this culture and to review their extensive architectural world-view.

Around 3,000 BCE, if not earlier, another affluent First Society emerged in the lower Mississippi River area. Their contribution comes in the form of mounds and plazas. These are basically man/woman-made sacred landscapes that are the settings for ritual ceremonial events that last for weeks or longer during the winter or spring. People traveled from very far away to these places. The shamans who controlled them lived at the sites year-round. The mounds were built most likely by the visitors as part of the ceremony itself. They were at the center of an elaborate ceremonial landscape where people came to exchange goods, socialize, and partake in long, sacred dances.

The lecture discusses the sad legacy of these mounds and plazas today in the U.S. It is estimated that about 98% are no longer extant, leaving us little clue about the extensive nature and significance of this landscape.

Lecture 5. Handout

Lecture 5. Notes

Lecture 5. Quiz

ARCHITECTURE BEGINNINGS:
A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
LECTURE 5: 
THE HOLOCENE AND THE EMERGING
RIVERINE/SHORE AND MOUND 
CULTURES
Professor Mark 
Jarzombek

Holocene
a geological epoch which began approximately 
10,000 
years 
BCE 
and which continues to the present day. 



Equatorial Monsoon
Holocene
Holocene
Riverine Cultures
Haida
Agro-pastoralism
Grain
Bull Cult
The Concept of Sacrifice
Maasai

Sannai
 
Maruyama, a 
Jomon
 Archaeological Site


Growth 
of forests
Holocene
9,000 BCE
3,000 BCE


Giant Rivers: 
Amazon
, Nile, Ganges, 
Danube
Holocene


Marshes
Holocene
Holocene
Riverine Cultures
Haida
Agro-pastoralism
Grain
Bull Cult
The Concept of Sacrifice
Maasai

Holocene Transformations
after 10,000 BCE
Fishing Riverine and Ocean Cultures
(North Pacific Societies – 
Jomon
 (Japan) - 
Haida
 (Canada
)
2. Pastoral Cultures
(Cattle Tending Societies  - 
Maasai
 (Kenya))
3. Agro-Pastoralism
(West Asia/India/China)

!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Savanna and Arid
Lecture 1 (100,000 onward)

!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Savanna and Arid
Lecture 2 (28,000 BCE onward)
Steppe and Grasslands
 
Sammi
Hunting Tradition
 
Plains
Indians
 
Gravettians
Lecture 1 (100,000 onward)

!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Savanna and Arid
Lecture 2 (28,000 BCE onward)
Steppe and Grasslands
 
Sammi
Hunting Tradition
 
Plains
Indians
Lecture 1 (100,000 onward)
deciduous 
forests
Taiga forest
 
Haida
Fishing Tradition
Lecture 3 (10,000 BCE onward)

When Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, explored the Americas west of the Mississippi, they made this description dated 1805 of the Columbia River
.
	“The number of dead salmon on the shores & floating in the river is incredible to say - and at this season they have only to collect the fish, split them open and dry them on their scaffolds on which they have great numbers; … Opposite of this… is a fishing place [with] 3 mat lodges, and great quantities of salmon on scaffolds drying. Saw great numbers of dead salmon on the shores and floating in the water, great number of Indians on the banks viewing me and 18 canoes accompanied me from the point. The waters of this river is clear, and a salmon may be seen at the depth of 15 or 20 feet.”

Riverine Cultures
Emerged in Post-Holocene era
Shifted away from hunting and mobility to fishing
Shifted away from mobile architecture to shore-line villages
Development of lumber-oriented architecture
r
equiring communal participation

Northern Hunting Tradition – Big Game-Cold Weather Specialists
Pacific Salmon Fishing Specialists
10,000 BCE
5
,000 BCE
3,000 BCE

Northern Hunting Tradition – Big Game-Cold Weather Specialists
Pacific Salmon Fishing Specialists
10,000 BCE
5
,000 BCE
3,000 BCE
Jomon
 
The 
Jomon
 of Japan, 15,000 BC to 300 BC

The two 
earliest house traditions in North Asia and the Americas 
are the pole  house and the pit house

Pit house:					
A clan unit of around 12-20                      
Settlements could consist of anywhere from 3-15 houses
A village of pit houses cold reach 300 or so.
Painting of a Mandan village 
(North 
Dakota
) by 
George Catlin. Circa 1833
.
Gives is some insight into pit house
v
illage life

A 
Jomon
 Village House (reconstructed
A pit house of huge dimension.
 Probably
 
served as a clan headquarters, particularly for winter ceremonies.

River
hunting
fishing
hunting
fishing
hunting
fishing
Ceremonial
Travel/exchanges
Usually in winter
Buffalo migration
Annual Communal Buffalo Hunt 
The Big-Game Hunting Tradition 
The Riverine Tradition 
seals
ocean
Seasonal camps
Seasonal camps
Prairie
Forest

Northern Hunting Tradition – Big Game-Cold Weather Specialists
Pacific Salmon Fishing Specialists
10,000 BCE
5
,000 BCE
3,000 BCE
Jomon
 
Yupik

Banpo
-China
c
a
 3,000 BCE
Navajo - Arizona
Pit House Tradition
Hogan

Hohokam Indians of 
the Tucson Basin - Arizona
Hogan from the Navajo in Arizona. Reconstructed 
Jonon
 Pit House, 
ca
 3000 BCE 

A Reconstructed Yupik Pit House, Alaska
Qasgiq
: 
Yu’pik
 pit 
house, mainly used during winter 

A Reconstructed Yupik Pit House, Alaska
(cut 
 
open to show construction)

Hohokam 100 CE
Navajo 1000 CE
Yupik 5000 BCE ?
Ket
 4500 BCE ?
Jomon
 10000 BCE
Banpo
 4500 BCE
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
Riverine Pit House Tradition
Iñupait
 2000 BCE ?
c
Nlaka'pamux
, 1000 BCE ? 
Haida
 3000 BCE ?
c
c
Korea 4000 BCE
c
Koryak
 

Northern Hunting Tradition – Big Game-Cold Weather Specialists
10,000 BCE
5
,000 BCE
3,000 BCE
Jomon
 
The 
Jomon
 of Japan, 15,000 BC to 300 BC
Yupik
Haida
Pacific Salmon Fishing Specialists

North America: Ritual Revolution: Poverty Point, USA (1,800 BCE)

Haida
Pacific Salmon 
Fishing Specialists
Northern Hunting Tradition – Big Game-Cold Weather Specialists

Haida
Pacific Salmon 
Fishing Specialists
Whale
Northern Hunting Tradition – Big Game-Cold Weather Specialists
trade
The 
Haida
 should be considered an Affluent 
society
They lived in a perfect spot for salmon, whales; deer and small animals in the forest; ducks on migration, berries and lumber

Cedar trees were long lasting even in damp conditions. Its inner bark was woven into mats, cloth and ropes for ritual costumes; its outer bark served as shingles for the roofs of the houses. Not surprisingly the tree, its red color associated with blood, was believed to be endowed with spiritual powers. 
The tree was called 
nawalak
 
or “supernatural force.” 

a reconstructed 
Jomon
 Pit House
a reconstructed 
Haida
 Pit House

Haida
Northwest Coast Indians
Haida
 and the Northwest Coast Native Americans
Salmon 
+ Whale + shore and forest 
resources
Cultural Affluence
One of the longest lasting cultures in the Americas (ca. 3,000 BCE (or earlier) – ca. 1900 CE)

Northwest Coast Indians
POTLACH
The main purpose of the potlatch is the re-distribution and reciprocity of 
wealth.
Different 
events take place during a potlatch, like singing and dancing, sometimes with masks 
or regalia
.
 
The gathering 
combined aspects of competition, peace keeping and a show of wealth
.
The 
sharing of 
resources creates and demonstrates and power. 
Usually held in the chiefs
' 
house.
L
eft
-overs are distributed first to elders, then the remainder of the guests after the meal. 

POTLACH
Watercolor by James G. Swan 
(
1818-1900) -
depicting 
the Klallam people of chief Chetzemoka at Port Townsend, with one of Chetzemoka's wives distributing potlatch

Poverty Point, 1,800 BCE
Cahokia Monk’s Mound, 600-1400 CE 
Serpent’s Mound, 1070 CE
MOUND AND PLAZA
Became an extensive cultural 
phenomenon through the south and 
south east of the 
U
S

https://
www.youtube.com
/
watch?v
=7R4oH9JCn34
Potlatch in New Vancouver 2013

https://
www.youtube.com
/
watch?v
=2xnzXXe68Vs
Pewi
 Dancing at 
Wa's
 Potlatch- October 2011

First Society
Savannah Tradition (!Kung: Botswana)
2. 	Big Game Hunting Tradition (Sami: Finland  	and Plains Indians: US)
Forest/Fishing Tradition
(
Jomon
: Japan and 
Haida
: 
Canada)
(
Mound+Plaza
 Culture: Lower Mississippi River area
)

Plains Indians
Bison Hunting Culture
Haida
 and NW Coast Cultures

Growth of forests: Oak and Walnut (
Juglands
)

The lower Mississippi River
a
rea was one of the most
h
ospitable areas for human 
habitation in the Americas
Nut trees
Ducks on yearly migration
Fish of many sorts
Berries
Mild weather

MOUND AND PLAZA
Mounds were made by carrying clay from distant places. Probably individual 
Communities brought clay form their 
region. Mounds 
were not used for habitation or houses, but part of a sacred 
landscape. The 
Sacred Landscape was part of elaborate ceremonies of exchange 
and ancestor worship.
Watson Brake (4,000 BCE)

MOUNDS + PLAZA
S
ites 
of ritual gatherings that took place probably 
yearly.
These ceremonial sites involved dancing, feasting, and 
sharing and 
lasted for weeks with varying degrees of 
intensity.
Usually located near water and on a 
bluff.
The mounds were built of clay brought to the site in baskets.
The clay was itself sacred and probably brought by clans from their homeland.
The mounds were not covered with grass and trees as they are today, but left
a
s 
exposed packed clay. 
The clay had different colors representing different different
sacred values.

North America: Ritual Revolution: Poverty Point, USA (1,800 BCE): Mound A

North America: Ritual Revolution: Poverty Point, USA (1,800 BCE): Mound A
What we see today is NOT what we would have once seen. The site today is over grown with grass and trees. Not in olden days. It was colored clay.

Newark Mound, Ohio
Of the many thousands of mounds that once existed only a few remain.
One of the most important, Newark Mound is now a golf course!!!!!!

Newark Mound, Ohio
Of the many thousands of mounds that once existed only a few remain.
One of the most important, Newark Mound is now a golf course!!!!!!
Aerial photo by Richard 
Pirko
, 1994 (Youngstown State 
University)

Cherokee Powwow, N.C.
https
://
www.youtube.com
/
watch?v
=O1gxWnWz2bs
Dance Ceremonialism

Big Mound of St. Louis: photograph of its excavation/destruction in the spring of 1869
Switzler's
 Illustrated History of Missouri 1541-1877 
(1879) 
Big Mound of St. Louis, destroyed Spring 1869
So that Native Americans would no longer use it as a sacred site.

Big Mound of St. Louis, destroyed Spring 1869

Big Mound of St. Louis, destroyed Spring 1869
All that was left was the gigantic sacred stone at the top that was used in a round-about.
Now even that stone has disappeared!

!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Savanna and Arid
Lecture 2 (28,000 BCE onward)
Steppe and Grasslands
 
Sammi
Hunting Tradition
 
Plains
Indians
Lecture 1 (100,000 onward)
deciduous 
forests
Taiga forest
 
Haida
Fishing Tradition
Lecture 3 (10,000 BCE onward)
Monsoon Belt
Savanna 
Rain forest
Rain forest
Rain forest
Rain forest

!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Savanna and Arid
Lecture 2 (28,000 BCE onward)
Steppe and Grasslands
 
Sammi
Hunting Tradition
 
Plains
Indians
Lecture 1 (100,000 onward)
deciduous 
forests
Taiga forest
 
Haida
Fishing Tradition
Lecture 3 (10,000 BCE onward)
Monsoon Belt
Savanna 
Rain forest
Rain forest
Rain forest
Rain forest
Rice
Millet/sorghum
Taro
Potato
Corn

Lecture 5. The Holocene and the Emerging Riverine/Shore and Mound Cultures

At the core of the lecture is a map that differentiates the forest- and shore-based societies of the north and the emerging monsoon-based societies around the equator. It is to the latter that the word ‘civilization’ is often linked. What tends to be forgotten in that narrative is the emergence of the pastoral tradition and its new relationship to animals.

Pastoralism developed in Africa and West Asia and had a huge impact on the social structure in the area of Africa-Eurasia. The lecture introduces the difference between Pastoralism and Agro-pastoralism. The examples of pastoral societies that still exist are the Dinka in Sudan and the Maasai in Kenya.

The Maasai arrived in Kenya around 1500 CE and, importantly, are not “indigenous.” However, they are nonetheless part of a pastoral tradition that goes back to 7,000 BCE and that has its origins probably in what is now the Sahara Desert. As the desert expanded, pastoral communities had to find special ecological niches for themselves, such as in Southern Sudan. While it seems difficult to compare the Maasai (cattle) with the Haida (salmon), the point that is worked out in this lecture is the emergence of two types of vastly different yet affluent cultures, neither of which are agriculturalists.

One of the prime contributions that pastoralism makes to civilizational narratives is the idea of sacrifice. It pervades many modern religions – Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism and Islam in particular.

Lecture 6. Handout

Lecture 6. Notes

Lecture 6. Quiz

ARCHITECTURE BEGINNINGS:
A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
LECTURE 6:
PASTORAL WORLDS
Professor 
Mark 
Jarzombek

Holocene Transformations
after 10,000 BCE
Fishing Riverine and Ocean Cultures
(North Pacific Societies – 
Haida
 (Canada)
2. Pastoral Cultures
(Cattle Tending Societies  - Maasai (Kenya)
Generally look down on agriculturalists
Very few left today
3. Agro-Pastoralism
Combine agriculture with animal herding
(sheep, pigs and cattle)
(West Asia/India/China)

Wild herd
Meat
Domesticated herd
Milk
Leather/Hides
Sinew
Bones
Hair for cloth/rugs
(Meat)

!Kung 
 
                  Australian Peoples
Savanna and Arid
Lecture 2 (28,000 BCE onward)
Steppe and Grasslands
 
Sammi
Hunting Tradition
 
Plains
Indians
Lecture 1 (100,000 onward)
deciduous 
forests
Taiga forest
Fishing Tradition
Lecture 4 (10,000 BCE onward)
Monsoon Belt
Savanna 
Rain forest
Rain forest
Rain forest
Rain forest
Rice
Millet/sorghum
Taro
Potato
Corn

Rock art in Somalia
Rain Forest
Savanna
Savanna
Savanna/Farm land
Area of presumed earliest cattle 
domestication
Beginning ca. 9,000 BCE
Savanna

Sahara Desert today
 
                                     Sahara region 9,000- 4,000 BCE 

Rock art in Somalia
Holocene
Riverine Cultures
Haida
Agro-pastoralism
Grain
Bull Cult
The Concept of Sacrifice
Maasai
Laas
 
Gaal

Cattle as power and prestige
A living, mobile bank account

Cultural Developments
Power (Masculine)
Warrior class
Hierarchy
Ownership
Male Initiation
Sacrifice
Economic Developments
Milk
Leather/Hides
Sinew
Bones
(Meat)
CATTLE PASTORALISTS

Cultural Developments
Power (Masculine)
Warrior class
Hierarchy
Ownership
Male Initiation
Sacrifice
Economic Developments
Milk
Leather/Hides
Sinew
Bones
(Meat)
CATTLE PASTORALISTS
Religious Developments
Poetry
Powerful Male deities

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Lectures (11)

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